Branding through visitors: how cultural differences affect brand co-creation in independent hotels in Iran

Purpose In most countries, independent hotels are a major contributor to both national economy and the hospitality sector, but best of authors’ knowledge, there is lack any study on brand co-creation (BCC) in hotels. This aims examine interrelationship moral judgement (MJ), self–brand connection, customer–brand engagement (CBE), electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) how BCC occurs contrasts visitors’ perspectives between two different Global Leadership Organizational Behavior Effectiveness clusters Furthermore, this also examines moderating impact privacy concern (PC) relationship eWOM co-creation. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from groups tourists, Iranian (290) European (224), who visited stayed some cities Iran. The structural equation modelling using AMOS 22 was adopted test hypotheses. Findings study’s findings revealed that significant differences culturally travellers terms selected variables, suggesting MJ main antecedent CBE, which leads among travellers, consequently BCC. Moreover, data indicates show high level PCs while staying Iran, prevents them sharing getting engaged social media, could delay process especially international level. Originality/value contributes literature by providing new insights concept context hotels, require special attention hotel managers.